Our superstructure model represents the full cement manufacturing process — from raw material preparation and clinker production to fuel use, electrification, carbon capture, and CO₂ handling — enabling a systematic comparison of all major decarbonisation pathways within a single integrated framework.

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The model includes:

• Energy sources: Electricity, hydrogen, natural gas, coal, biomass, biomethane, and reduced derived fuels (RDF), allowing both fossil-based and renewable fuel pathways

• Kiln technologies: Conventional air-fired kilns, oxy-fuel kilns and Electrification (partial and fully electrified kiln) configurations

• Carbon capture options: Post-combustion MEA absorption (CC-MEA), oxy-combustion with cryogenic CO₂ purification (CC-Oxy), calcium looping (CC-CaL), and MEA systems with integrated heat pumping (CC-MEA(HP))

• CO₂ Storage: Compression, purification, and transport of captured CO₂ to geological storage

• Waste heat recovery: Electricity generation via supercritical CO₂ Rankine cycles (CRC) and thermal integration with carbon capture units

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By optimising across all these technology combinations, the model identifies the most cost-effective and energy-efficient routes to achieve net-zero cement production.

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Click here for the full technical description and a detailed explanation of the cement superstructure and process flows.